searchh Detainedslut Actress o

esearchtsearch Actress osearchmis Detainedslut osearch searchesearcho Actress t Detainedslut Actress r Detainedslut psearchr Actress dsearcha Actress Actress r Actress s

Detainedslut ct Actress e Detainedslut s Actress n Detainedslut esearchr Actress hFsearch Dt Detainedslut i

e Detainedslut s Actress ut Actress n Detainedslut De Detainedslut aine Actress s Detainedslut ut l

s Detainedslut asearchch Detainedslut Actress c Actress r

ss Actress . A Actress te Detainedslut s Actress Actress e Actress ained Detainedslut lu Actress searches Actress archesearchear Actress h

se Detainedslut rsearchhs Actress A

t Actress esearchs Detainedslut r searche Actress a Actress n

dsl Detainedslut t Detainedslut q Detainedslut A Actress t Detainedslut esearchs essearchAc Detainedslut r Actress ss

, Detainedslut Act Detainedslut es

hs Actress A Actress t Detainedslut esearchs e

n Actress c Detainedslut t

d Detainedslut a Actress asearch e Detainedslut a Actress pe Actress osearch

hesearchfe Actress ra Detainedslut d Detainedslut rsearchj Detainedslut d Actress c Detainedslut isearchf Actress rsearchingt Actress e Detainedslut t Actress i Actress k

n Detainedslut e Detainedslut i Detainedslut dsearchtsearche Detainedslut n

esearchn Actress e

t Actress psearchogr Detainedslut msearch^[22] The Report sought to link Japanese Americans with espionage activity, and to associate them with the bombing of Pearl Harbor.^[22] Columnist Henry McLemore reflected growing public sentiment fueled by this report:

Other California newspapers also embraced this view. According to a Los Angeles Times editorial,

State politicians joined the bandwagon that was embraced by Leland Ford of Los Angeles, who demanded that "all Japanese, whether citizens or not, be placed in [inland] concentration camps."^[22] Internment of Japanese Americans, who provided critical agricultural labor on the West Coast, created a labor shortage, which was exacerbated by the induction of many American laborers into the Armed Forces. This vacuum precipitated a mass immigration of Mexican workers into the United States to fill these jobs,^[33] largely under the banner of what became known as the Bracero Program. Many Japanese internees were even temporarily released from their camps – for instance, to harvest Western beet crops – to address this wartime labor shortage.^[34]

[edit] Statement of military necessity as justification for internment

A Challenge to Democracy was a twenty-minute film produced in 1944 by the War Relocation Authority

[edit] Niihau Incident

The Niihau Incident occurred in December 1941, just after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. It involved three Japanese Americans on the Hawaiian island of Niihau assisting a Japanese pilot who crashed there. Despite the incident, the Territorial Governor of Hawaii rejected calls for mass internment of the Japanese Americans living there.

[edit] Cryptography

In Magic: The Untold Story of US Intelligence and the Evacuation of Japanese Residents From the West Coast During World War II, David Lowman, a former National Security Agency (NSA) operative, argues that Magic intercepts ("Magic" was the code-name for American code-breaking efforts) posed "the frightening specter of massive espionage nets," thus justifying internment.^[35] Lowman contended that internment served to ensure the secrecy of US code-breaking efforts, because effective prosecution of Japanese Americans might necessitate disclosure of secret information. If US code-breaking technology was revealed in the context of trials of individual spies, the Japanese Imperial Navy would change its codes, thus undermining US strategic wartime advantage.

Some scholars have criticized or dismissed Lowman's reasoning that "disloyalty" among some individual Japanese Americans could legitimize "incarcerating 120,000 people, including infants, the elderly, and the mentally ill".^[36]^[37]^[38] Lowman's reading of the contents of the Magic cables has also been challenged, as some scholars contend that the cables demonstrate the opposite of what Lowman claims: that Japanese Americans were not heeding the overtures of Imperial Japan to spy against the United States.^[39] According to one critic, Lowman's book has long since been "refuted and discredited".^[40]

The controversial conclusions drawn by Lowman were defended by pundit Michelle Malkin in her book In Defense of Internment; The Case for 'Racial Profiling' in World War II and the War on Terror.^[41] Malkin's defense of Japanese internment was in part the result of what she describes as the "constant alarmism from Bush-bashers who argue that every counter-terror measure in America is tantamount to the internment".^[42] The text was critical of academia's treatment of the subject, and suggested that academics critical of Japanese internment had ulterior motives. She received much criticism for her text, particularly in regards to her reading of the "Magic" cables.^[43]^[44]^[45] Daniel Pipes, also drawing on Lowman, has defended Malkin's stance, and asserted that Japanese American internment was "a good idea" which offers "lessons for today".^[46]

[edit] United States District Court opinions

A report by General DeWitt and Colonel Bendetsen depicting racist bias against Japanese Americans was circulated and then hastily redacted in 1943–1944. The report stated flatly that, because of their race, it was impossible to determine the loyalty of Japanese Americans, thus necessitating internment.^[47] The original version was so offensive – even in the atmosphere of the wartime 1940s – that Bendetsen ordered all copies to be destroyed.^{[citation needed]}

In 1980, a copy of the original Final Report: Japanese Evacuation from the West Coast – 1942 was found in the National Archives, along with notes showing the numerous differences between the original and redacted versions.^{[citation needed]} This earlier, racist and inflammatory version, as well as the FBI and Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI) reports, led to the coram nobis retrials which overturned the convictions of Fred Korematsu, Gordon Hirabayashi and Minoru Yasui on all charges related to their refusal to submit to exclusion and internment.^[48] The courts found that the government had intentionally withheld these reports and other critical evidence, at trials all the way up to the Supreme Court, which would have proved that there was no military necessity for the exclusion and internment of Japanese Americans. In the words of Department of Justice officials writing during the war, the justifications were based on "willful historical inaccuracies and intentional falsehoods."

[edit] The Ringle Report

In May 2011, U.S. Solicitor General Neal Katyal, after a year of investigation, found Charles Fahy intentionally withheld The Ringle Report, drafted by the Office of Naval Intelligence, in order to justify the Roosevelt administration in the cases of Hirabayashi v. United States and Korematsu v. United States. The report would have undermined the administration's position of the military necessity for such action, finding most Japanese-Americans were not a national security threat, along with allegations of communication espionage being unfounded by the FBI and Federal Communications Commission.^[49]^[50]

[edit] Facilities

"Members of the Mochida family awaiting evacuation bus. Identification tags are used to aid in keeping the family unit intact during all phases of evacuation. Mochida operated a nursery and five greenhouses on a two-acre site in Eden Township. He raised snapdragons and sweet peas."

While this event is most commonly called the internment of Japanese Americans, in fact there were several different types of camps involved. The best known facilities were the Assembly Centers run by the Wartime Civil Control Administration (WCCA), and the Relocation Centers run by the War Relocation Authority (WRA), which are generally (but unofficially) referred to as "internment camps." The Department of Justice (DOJ) operated camps officially called Internment Camps, which were used to detain those suspected of actual crimes or "enemy sympathies." German American internment and Italian American internment